FROM THE EDITORIAL DIRECTOR
Dr. Farida Khanam has been a professor at the Department of Islamic Studies
at Jamia Millia Islamia in New Delhi. A Study of World's Major Religions, A Simple
Guide to Sufism are two of the books amongst others, of which she is the author. She
has also translated many books on Islam authored by Maulana Wahiduddin Khan.
Currently, the chairperson of Centre for Peace and Spirituality (CPS International),
an organization founded by her father Maulana Wahiduddin Khan, she is a regular
contributor of articles to journals, newspapers and magazines. Dr. Khanam has
edited Maulana’s English translation of the Quran and has also translated his
Urdu commentary of the Quran into English. Under Maulana Wahiduddin Khan
Peace Foundation, along with the CPS team, she has designed a series of courses on
peace-building, countering extremism and conflict resolution.
PIOUS CALIPHATE
THE FIRST four Caliphs after the Prophet are known as the
‘Rightly Guided Caliphs’. They were successors of the Prophet
in the real sense of the word. They were all senior Companions
of the Prophet. They were chosen by the Muslims for their closeness
to the Prophet and for their outstanding character. They were humble,
unselfish, tolerant, God-fearing, and well-versed in the Quran. They
remained in close touch with the people. They refused to take any
luxuries for themselves.
Masters of a vast empire, they continued to lead simple lives just as the
Prophet had done before them. During the 30 years of their rule, Islam
made great progress. This period of Islamic rule is the golden period
of justice and fair play. That is why these Caliphs are called rightly
guided, for they ruled the people of their time exactly in accordance
with the teachings of the Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet. They
considered themselves as simple servants of God.
Abu Bakr As-Siddiq—The First Caliph (632-34)
Abu Bakr was a rich merchant of Makkah, belonging to the Quraysh
tribe. At the time when Muhammad was endowed with prophethood,
Abu Bakr had gone to Yemen on business. When he came back, people
immediately came to him to give him the ‘strange’ news of Muhammad receiving revelations through Gabriel. Having been the Prophet’s close
friend since boyhood (born in Makkah in AD 573, he was just three
years younger than the Prophet), Abu Bakr was too keenly aware of the
sincerity and truthfulness of the Prophet to have any misgivings.
However, on hearing this news, Abu Bakr went to see the Prophet, and
asked him about the message of this religion that he was preaching.
Having unshakeable faith in the Prophet, he accepted Islam without
any second thoughts. That is why he was given the title As-Siddiq (the
upright) by the Prophet. He was thus the first male to embrace Islam,
and was one of the Prophet’s oldest supporters. Abu Bakr’s father,
Usman, (better known as Abu Qahafa) and his
mother, Salma, had named him Abdul Kaaba,
meaning “the servant of the Kaaba”. But when
he embraced Islam, the Prophet changed this
pagan name to Abdullah and gave him the
surname of Abu Bakr.
Without knowledge,
action is useless and
knowledge without
action is futile.
— Abu Bakr
Even prior to Islam, Abu Bakr had been
respected for his good moral character.
He was honest and truthful and had good
relations with everyone. The Quraysh trusted
him and consulted him for solutions to their
problems. Now, after having accepted Islam, he began to spread the
word of God in his own social circle. As a result of his efforts, some very
promising and talented people accepted Islam, most of whom were
his friends. They were—Usman ibn Affan, Zubayr ibn al-Awam, Abdur
Rahman ibn Auf, Saad ibn Abi Waqqas, Abu Ubaydah ibn al-Jarrah,
Khalid ibn Sayeed, etc.
When the Quraysh came to know of his role in the spread of Islam,
they turned against him and began to persecute him. But he patiently
bore all their oppression and faithfully stood by the Prophet amidst all
perils. He spent all his wealth in the cause of Islam.
It was because of his sincerity and dedication to the cause of Islam
that the Prophet chose him to accompany him when he migrated from
Makkah to Madinah. His self-sacrificing friendship and his devotion to
the cause of Islam was rewarded by his name being immortalized in
the Quran as “the second of the two.” ( 9: 40 )
Soon after the Prophet and Abu Bakr migrated to Madinah, in obedience
to a divine injunction, the Muslims then left their home and hearth for
Madinah. But the Quraysh did not allow them to rest in peace even in
Madinah. They waged many battles in their bid to uproot the Muslims from the city. Abu Bakr took part in all these defensive battles. He was
always with the Prophet and accompanied him on all his campaigns.
He never showed any weakness, always standing like a rock by the side
of the Prophet.
Tabuk was the last expedition of the Prophet of Islam. He asked people
to give generously in aid of it. Abu Bakr was the only person to give
all he had to the cause of Islam. The Prophet asked him whether he
had anything left for his wife and children. He replied that God and
His apostle were enough for them. No one could surpass him so far as
selfless service to Islam was concerned. Not only was he the first man
to accept Islam, but he was also the foremost among the Muslims to
uphold the cause of God.
After Makkah was conquered, the Prophet
sent Abu Bakr in 631 to Makkah to lead the
Hajj on behalf of the Prophet. Abu Bakr read
the customary sermon (Khutba) of Hajj.
If an ignorant person
is attracted by the
things of the world,
that is bad. But if
a learned person is
thus attracted, it is
worse. — Abu Bakr
Ever since the Prophet had arrived in Madinah,
he had been in the habit of leading the prayer
himself. During his last illness, the Prophet
became so incapacitated that he could not
come to the mosque for this purpose. The
Prophet then asked Abu Bakr to conduct the
prayer in the mosque and to lead the Muslims
in his stead. Aisha, who was Abu Bakr’s daughter and the wife of the
Prophet, thought that her tender-hearted father would not be able to
bear this burden. She therefore requested the Prophet to ask someone
else to perform this duty. But the Prophet did not change his mind.
Thus, in the lifetime of the Prophet, Abu Bakr came to fill the highest
office. This distinction made it possible for Umar and his friends,
after the Prophet’s death in 632, to propose Abu Bakr as the head of
the community. Abu Bakr thus became Caliph (the successor of the
Prophet) by the general consent of the people.
Thanks to his simple but firm character, he was able to lead the young
Muslim community successfully through the most difficult times. After
the death of the Prophet, a number of the Arab tribes revolted. Most
of them had embraced Islam after the conquest of Makkah in AD 629-
630 and had not had the opportunity to undergo any proper training
by the Prophet. Being used to a free and easy life, they found such
Islamic injunctions as zakat (compulsory alms-giving)) and jihad more than they could stand. They were under the impression that, after the
Prophet, God’s succour too had come to an end.
But Abu Bakr did not let the situation get out of hand. He dealt with
them firmly, having chosen the brave general Khalid ibn al-Walid as the
commander of his forces. He successfully suppressed all revolts and
brought all the Arabian tribes under the control of Islam.
Abu Bakr treated the vanquished mercifully. This helped re-establish
peace in the country. Arabia was brought under control within less
than a year. Later, Abu Bakr sent Khalid and other able generals on a
campaign against Persia and Byzantine.
By resorting to these measures, Abu Bakr very successfully brought
about much-needed unity among the Muslim community. During his
short rule, the Arabian army saw several victories. Al-Hira in Persia was
conquered in 633.
Our abode in this
world is transitory,
our life therein is but
a loan, our breaths
are numbered and
our indolence
is manifest.
— Abu Bakr
Soon after, Abu Bakr fell victim to a fatal
illness in AD 634. On his death bed what Abu
Bakr feared more than anything was division
among the Muslims. He wanted to make
sure that no difference should divide them
after he was gone. After much thought, he
decided to nominate Umar as his successor.
When he put his choice before the senior
Companions, they all approved of it. When
all of the Companions had agreed to this, he
went ahead with the nomination.
Abu Bakr passed away two weeks after the appointment of Umar.
According to his wish, he was buried by the side of the Prophet, and his
body was wrapped in the same old clothes in which he had died. His
rule had lasted for two years and three months.
Abu Bakr had lived a very simple and modest life. He had had neither
servants nor bodyguards. He used to come early in the morning to the
Prophet’s mosque to carry out the duties of the state and to perform
the congregational prayers. He even did routine chores at home,
sweeping the floor, feeding and milking the goats, etc.
Abu Bakr lived and worked for Islam till his last breath. Although his
rule lasted only for two years, three months and ten days—a very
short span of time for a nation—he had been able to perform great
feats. One of the many great contributions made by Abu Bakr was the
collection and collation of the Quran in codex form. His achievements
have rendered his name immortal.
Umar ibn al-Khattab—The Second Caliph (634-44)
Umar ibn Khattab, the second Caliph is the founder of the Arab empire.
He was born in pagan Makkah. He embraced Islam through the efforts
of his sister Fatimah, four years before the migration to Madinah.
He was completely opposed to the Prophet at first. He had actually
set out to kill him. But while on his way, someone told him that his
sister and her husband had become Muslims. On hearing the most
shocking news he diverted his course, and rushed to his sister’s home
in great fury. At that moment Fatimah was reading some passage from
the Quran. She tried to hide that section of the Quran as she saw him
coming. But Umar burst into the house without giving them any time
and began beating his brother-in-law. His sister too got wounded
while attempting to protect her husband. Umar saw blood oozing from
their faces. On seeing these wounds, Umar calmed down. He took the
text from her and read it himself. He was so greatly moved by these
divine words that he asked them to take him
to Muhammad immediately to proclaim his
acceptance of Islam.
Islam will be
destroyed by the
mistakes of scholars,
the arguments of
the hypocrites who
misinterpret the
Quran to support
their views and
misleading rulers.
— Umar ibn
al-Khattab
As soon as he joined the believers, the
community became very strong. He was famed
for his bravery, intelligence and was endowed
with a towering personality. Although he
held no official position, he became the real
organizer of the newly formed community of
the believers. He became one of the Prophet’s
chief advisors. His part was in fact more of a
counsellor than of a soldier, although he did
take part in the battles.
Umar was so exceptionally gifted by nature that the power after Abu
Bakr naturally passed on to him. Although he was nominated by Abu
Bakr, the majority of the Companions accepted him as Caliph without
any hesitation. He held this office from AD 634 to 644.
When Umar assumed power, the great expansion by conquest had
already begun. Umar himself had contributed to it especially in his
capacity as advisor to Abu Bakr.
It is one of his greatest achievements that he brought the fiercely
independent Bedouins under control and executed his plans of
expansion so successfully. All the generals were under his full control.
One of his uncanny ability lay in recognizing the talents of people.
Umar would unmistakably choose that person and employ him for the job he was best suited for. For example, he made maximum use of the
Umayyad family in the execution of his plans for the spread of Islam.
During his reign, the Muslims, under Khalid the celebrated general,
conquered Persia, Syria, Palestine and Egypt. In Jerusalem, the Christian
ruler Sophronius set a condition for surrender—that only if Caliph
Umar comes there in person and signs the treaty of peace only then
they would surrender. The Caliph therefore
set out in 637 for Jerusalem with one servant
and a camel. Since there was only one camel,
he and his servants rode the camel by turns.
It happened that on the day they were to
reach Jerusalem it was the turn of the servant.
The servant insisted on giving his turn to
him saying that it will look awkward that the
servant is riding and the Caliph leading the
camel. But Umar thought it was not according
to the spirit of justice so he refused to do so.
Do not be fooled by
one who recites the
Quran. His recitation
is but speech—but
look to those who act
according to it.
— Umar ibn
al-Khattab
When the Palestinians saw the Caliph of a vast empire in rough, patched
cloak, walking on foot with no grain of pride and haughtiness, they
threw their gates open to welcome him into the Holy City.
Umar signed the peace treaty with the Christians of Jerusalem, granted
them full religious freedom to practise their religion and full state
protection.
Umar adopted the title of Amir al-Muminin (Leader of the believers)
rather than the Khalifah Rasul Allah (deputy of the messenger of God)
as Abu Bakr was called. He also instituted the Hijrah (migration) to mark
the commencement of the Muslim calendar ( 622 CE). He instituted
Diwan-e-Ata, which gave out stipends to all Muslims. He founded
military centres such as Basra, Kufah, Fustat, which later developed
into great cities of Islam. He created the office of Qazi (Judge).
Umar was a political genius. He succeeded in uniting all the disparate
elements during his rule. A new Muslim state emerged under his able
leadership.
In spite of being the powerful ruler of an empire he lived an extremely
simple life. Because of his high moral character he inspired respect and
admiration from all alike. He was at the height of his powers when he
was stabbed by Abu Lulu on November 3, 644 , a Persian Christian.
Umar was thus not only a great ruler but also an embodiment of all the
virtues of Islam.
Usman ibn Affan—The Third Caliph (644-656)
Usman was born six years after the Prophet and he belonged to the
Umayyad tribe of the Quraysh. He was a cloth merchant and was so
rich that he was known as Al-Ghani (the rich). He was Abu Bakr’s friend
and it was Abu Bakr who had introduced Islam to him. Usman accepted
Islam without questioning. He was the only member of the Umayyads
to become a Muslim during the time of the
persecution of Muslims. He was married
to the Prophet’s daughter Ruqayya. On
being persecuted by the Quraysh due to his
conversion, he asked Prophet’s permission
to migrate to Abyssinia, the land of the kind
Christian king, Najashi (Negus). He and his
wife Ruqayya were thus among the first to
give up their home in the cause of God. When
Muslims began to emigrate to Madinah,
Usman too, along with his wife, came to
Madinah and settled there.
No one conceals
something in his
heart, but God causes
it to be seen on his
face or in the slip
of the tongue.
— Usman ibn Affan
Ruqayya took ill in Madinah and died thereafter. Usman was very sad.
So the Prophet married his second daughter to Usman. This was a great
honour. Usman came to be known as “Zun Noorain”, the possessor of
two lights. He acted as the Prophet’s emissary during the Hudaybiya
peace treaty. Usman was also one of the scribes of the Prophet. He
wrote portions of the Quran as and when they were revealed. He was
also one of the ten Companions whom the Prophet had given the good
news of Paradise.
Umar, on his deathbed, had nominated a six-man council to choose
a Caliph from among its members. These members were Ali, Usman,
Abdur Rahman ibn Auf, Saad ibn Abi Waqqas, Zubair ibn Awam, Talha
ibn Obaidullah. After great deliberations, Usman was offered the
Caliphate. Usman ibn Affan became the third Caliph of Islam.
Azerbaijan and Armenia were conquered during the rule of Umar. But
after the dismissal of Saad ibn Abi Waqqas’ governorship, Azerbaijan
revolted. Usman ordered military action against it and the Province
was brought again under the Caliphate.
Muawiya, Governor of Syria with the help of Abi Sarah, the Governor of
Egypt, invaded Cyprus and brought it under Islamic rule. Cyprus served
as a military base for the Muslims.
Usman was a simple and kind-hearted man, because of which many of
his subordinates holding key positions did not fear being taken to task.
The administration of a vast empire needed a man of stern character
like Umar. Although Usman was a deeply religious man, he proved to
be a weak leader. His administration was not so disciplined as that
of Umar, the second Caliph. Usman felt that by appointing his friends
and relatives to key positions he will be able to manage administrative
affairs. But this did not happen. Having no fear for being taken to task
by the kind-hearted Caliph, they were all the more emboldened to rule
according to their own whims and fancies, without looking after the
public good. The public resented such callousness, holding the Caliph
responsible for the bad administration. They even demanded his
abdication, but the Caliph refused to do so. The Egyptians in particular
were angry with him. They blamed the Caliph for replacing a capable
governor there with his own cousin who set taxes more than they could
bear to pay.
This dissension finally developed into a
state of civil war. The Egyptians took more
active part in this revolt. They demanded his
resignation but Usman rejected all such advice
and preached a public sermon against them.
Soon afterwards, while he was at prayer, a
group of these unruly men attacked and killed
him. The period of his caliphate lasted from
644 to 656.
The highest degree
in faith is that
you always regard
yourself in the
presence of God.
— Usman ibn Affan
Usman’s most important contribution to the cause of Islam was the
preparation of the second and final version of the Quran. He ordered
the Quran to be written in the Quraysh dialect of Arabic. Then he
commanded that a few copies of it be made and sent to the centres
of the Muslim province. Every other version was destroyed, and the
Quran has remained absolutely unchanged for the centuries.
Ali ibn Abi Talib—The Fourth Caliph (656-661)
Ali ibn Abi Talib, cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet of Islam, was
elected the fourth Caliph. He reigned from 656 to 661.
Ali was a profoundly religious man devoted entirely to the cause of
Islam. He was born in Makkah about the year 600 to Abu Talib, chief
of the clan of Banu Hashim. Ali was adopted by the Prophet and lived
with him in the same house. For, once Makkah suffered from economic
depression. Abu Talib, Prophet’s uncle had a very large family, therefore
the Prophet took into his care Ali, to lighten the burden of Abu Talib.
One day, when the Prophet and Khadija were worshipping together,
Ali happened to see them kneeling and prostrating themselves and
reciting Quranic revelations. Ali found it very strange. He asked the
Prophet: “To whom were you prostrating yourself.” The Prophet
answered, “We have prostrated ourselves to God.” The Prophet then
explained to him about God and the revelations he had received. Then
the Prophet invited him to worship God alone without associating
anyone with Him. Ali was excited but thought that he ought to consult
his father about it. However, he could not wait any longer. The very
next morning he came rushing to the Prophet and declared to them
his acceptance of faith, saying: “God created me without consulting
my father. Why then should I consult him in
order to worship God?” Ali was the first youth
to enter the fold of Islam at the age of 10. He
remained a lifelong devoted follower of the
Prophet.
Never make a
decision in anger
and never make
a promise in
happiness.
— Ali ibn Abi Talib
On the night of the migration in 622 it was Ali
who risked his life by sleeping in the Prophet’s
bed at a time when his house was surrounded
by bloodthirsty men with drawn swords
with the plot of assassinating the Prophet.
Ali lay there so that the Prophet may leave
unnoticed. The Prophet further asked him to stay in Makkah in order
to restore all things, entrusted to the Prophet, to their rightful owners
in Makkah. Only after carrying out this request of the Prophet Ali left
for Madinah. In Madinah Ali married Prophet’s daughter Fatima. Two
sons, Hasan and Husain were born to them in Madinah.
Ali was extremely brave. He used to display great feats of courage and
bravery during the military campaigns. He was also one of the Prophet’s
scribes. He was chosen by the Prophet for several important missions.
Ali was invited by the Muslims of Madinah to assume the office of the
Caliphate after the murder of Usman, the third Caliph. For three days
after Usman’s murder Madinah remained completely in the grip of
rioters. In such a state of affairs when Ali’s name was proposed he
refused at first. But the people of Madinah prevailed upon him to give
second thought and come forward to serve the people. Ali therefore
agreed reluctantly after hesitating for a long time.
His brief reign was beset by difficulties. The forces of lawlessness
had been unleashed. Ali wanted first to concentrate on consolidating
his administration and after that to take action against Usman’s murderers. He wanted to wait until the conditions were normalized.
But the supporters of Usman did not listen to what Ali had to say. They
thought that Ali was trying to evade the issue.
The murder of Usman had far reaching effects on Islamic history. The
united and determined Muslim community was divided forever. Instead
of going out to the frontiers they were involved in internecine clashes.
Instead of concentrating on consolidation Ali had to spend all his time
in pacifying the warring factions. He did his best to restore peace but
he failed to do so without receiving the support of the people.
Ali wanted to establish his rule on the Islamic ideals of social justice and
equality. But the Quraysh aristocracy of Makkah which had amassed
too much wealth in the wake of conquests opposed Ali vehemently.
It was this group led by Muawiya that demanded the immediate trial
of the murderers of Usman. When Ali failed to meet their demand to
bring the murderer to book without delay, they revolted against Ali.
Aisha, Prophet’s wife, Talha, and Zubayr, prominent Companions of the
Prophet, also took a leading part. This episode, known as “the battle of
the camel” was suppressed, although after much bloodshed.
A hopeless man sees
difficulties in every
chance, but a hopeful
person sees chances
in every difficulty.
— Ali ibn Abi Talib
Ali had now established himself as Caliph by
defeating his rivals. He had shifted the capital
from Madinah to Kufah. The first priority in the
matters of the state was given to the dismissal
of the provincial governors. Muawiya ibn abi
Sufiyan, governors of Syria and a relative of
Usman too was dismissed. But Muawiya who
had established himself securely in Syria
did not accept the dismissal order. He came
out openly to avenge the martyred Caliph. It
was an issue on which he could mobilize a great majority of Muslims.
He made eloquent speeches to play upon Muslim emotions. He took
the stand that since the new Caliph is evading the issue of bringing
the assassins to account, which is the demand of justice, the Caliph
therefore stands disqualified for the office of the caliphate. In this way
Muawiya justified his insurrection against the elected Caliph.
Muawiya gathered a large army of Syrians while the army of Ali
comprised 50,000 Iraqis. The encounter look place on July 28, 657 . Malik
al-Ashtar was commanding Ali’s forces. Ali was on the point of victory.
But the shrewd Muawiya and his supporter Amr ibn al-As managed to
avert defeat by proposing arbitration. Ali saw through this trick. But his army forced him to accept the principle of arbitration. This greatly
weakened his position.
Then, another group emerged known as Kharijites (Dissenters). Earlier
supporters of Ali, now they turned against him. They maintained that Ali
should not have accepted arbitration. They became so deadly against
the Caliph that anyone who said that he was the follower of the Caliph
was mercilessly killed.
Ali inflicted the Kharijites a decisive defeat at Nahrawan. Thousands
of them were killed in the battlefield. But this defeat did not end the
Kharijite opposition for they were spread out in different parts of the
country. The extremist among them preached lawlessness, saying: “All
authority belongs to God, so there should be no government”.
Ali was engaged in extirpating the Kharijites and Muawiya found
enough time to increase his influence among the people. Displaying
great diplomacy Muawiya managed to cut the ground from under Ali’s
feet steadily, by adopting an aggressive policy
against the Caliph. Ultimately by the end of
600, Ali had lost control of Egypt and Hijaz.
His popularity was diminishing day by day.
Recitation of the
Quran without
contemplation and
thought is futile.
— Ali ibn Abi Talib
The forces of Ali and Muawiya met at Siffin.
When Muawiya realized that he was going to
lose the battle he managed to force the end
of the fighting by having pages of the Quran
fixed to the lances of his troops. Ali was
obliged to accept arbitration. When Ali agreed
to this, some of his supporters abandoned him. They were not willing
to accept the compromise. During the months of discussions between
the arbiters, Ali’s alliance grew weaker. The Kharijites who had revolted
ultimately decided to assassinate Ali.
Early one morning while he was praying in a mosque at Kufah in Iraq,
a Kharijite struck him with a poisoned sword to avenge the men slain
at Nahrawan. Two days later, Ali died and was buried near Kufah. The
most glorious chapter in the history of Islam came to an end by the
death of Ali.
The spot near Kufah known as Mashhad Ali developed into one of the
great centres of pilgrimage. Ali’s caliphate lasted for four years and
nine months. Ali’s political discourses, sermons, letters, and sayings
collected in a book entitled Nahj al-Balagha (The Road of Eloquence)
are well-known in Arabic literature.
According to the famous historian, Philip K Hitti, “Ali dead proved more
effective than Ali living. As a canonized martyr, he retrieved at once
more than he had lost in a life-time. Though lacking in those traits that
constitute a leader and a politician, viz-alertness, foresight, resolution,
expediency, he still possessed the qualities of an ideal Arabian. Valiant
in battle, wise in counsel, eloquent in speech, true to his friends,
magnanimous to his foes, he became both the paragon of Muslim
nobility and chivalry.”
Dr. Farida Khanam
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